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The American
Red Cross, the Army Y.M.C.A., and the Knights of Columbus are recognized as
vital factors in the conduct of the present World War. Similarly during the
Civil War there were such organizations as the United States Sanitary
Commission , the western Sanitary Commission, and the United States Christian
Commission, which undertook the work of looking after the health, comfort and
general morale of the soldiers. In addition to the generous contributions which
the people of Iowa made to these organizations, they formed local relief
agencies through which they worked. It is
the purpose of this paper to present a general discussion of the three
large national commissions, and afterwards a more detailed account of the
activities of the people of Iowa in the interests of the welfare of the
soldiers and their families.
The United States Sanitary Commission
The Civil War had
scarcely begun when, during the last days of April, 1861, there was held in New
York City what was up to that time probably the largest council of women ever
assembled in the United States.1 It was at this meeting, called by
the women of New York, that the Women’s Central Association of Relief was
organized for the purpose of assisting in caring for the soldiers in the Union
armies so rapidly being raised. The organization proposed to furnish “comforts,
stores, and nurses in aid of the Medical Staff” of the United States Army and
to so organize the benevolent efforts of the women of all the loyal States that
these efforts might result in the greatest possible advantage to the Union
cause. To accomplish this purpose a plan was evolved to establish definite
relations with the medical staff, which plan, when eventually achieved,
resulted in the formation of the United States Sanitary Commission.2
Notes
1 The United States Sanitary Commission in The North American Review, Vol. XCVIII, p.
154.
2 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, pp. 42, 43.
This
result, however, was not brought about without overcoming many difficulties.
When the members of the medical staff were approached by a committee of New
York citizens representing the women of the city with the proposal to establish
a civilian commission to aid and advise them, they at once expressed their
disapproval and made it evident that they would not look with favor upon any
aid or interference from the outside. They replied that the “government was ready
and willing to supply everything the soldiers needed or could need; that the
Medical Department was fully aroused to duties, and perfectly competent to
them; and that it would be an uncalled-for confession of delinquency and
poverty to admit that the army needed, or would need, anything that the
government and the Medical Department were not able and willing to furnish.”3
The medical staff “thought the zeal of the women and the activity of the men
assisting them, superfluous, obtrusive, and likely to grow troublesome”, and
believed that the part of the general public in contributing to the relief of
the soldiers would be small.4
The
New York organization was not discouraged, however, and reinforced by the
support of certain medical societies of the city, continued the agitation which
had been begun. A delegation of physicians was sent to Washington to
investigate the matter and see what they could accomplish. After convincing
themselves that some commission to aid the medical authorities was a dire
necessity, the delegation offered various proposals for the creation and
operation of such a body.5 Sanitary commissions had been organized
during the Crimean and Indian wars, and these men were convinced that such a
commission would be formed for service during the Civil War.6 They
met many rebukes and setbacks. Their patriotic and unselfish motives were not
always appreciated: often it was insinuated that they were aiming at selfish
ends. One secretary “begged” them “To state frankly, precisely what they
wanted, as it was evident to him that they could not want only what they seemed
to be asking for.” President Lincoln himself characterized the plan as adding a
“fifth wheel to the coach”.7 One writer suggested that it was during
long waits in “anterooms” for interviews with various government officials that
members of the commission first conceived the idea, which they later carried
out, of providing meals for the disabled soldiers waiting their turn at the
paymaster’s office.8
Notes
3 The United States Sanitary Commission in The North American Review, Vol. XCVIII, p. 159.
4 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 44.
5 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, pp. 50-53.
6 The United States Sanitary Commission in The North American Review, Vol. XCVIII, p.
372.
7 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 58.
8 The United States Sanitary Commission in The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XIX, p. 420.
Organization of the Commission
In
spite of many discouragements the advocates of a commission finally obtained
the approval of all the necessary authorities to a plan which they had
submitted. The plan, as set forth in a letter of May 18, 1861, addressed to the
Secretary of War by the New York delegation, proposed “that a mixed Commission
of civilians distinguished for their philanthropic experience and acquaintance
with sanitary matters, of medical men, and of military officers, be appointed
by the Government, who shall be charged with the duty of investigating the best
means of methodizing and reducing to practical service the already active but
undirected benevolence of the people toward the Army; who shall consider the
general subject of the prevention of sickness and suffering among the troops
and suggest the wisest methods, which the people at large can use to manifest
their good-will towards the comfort, security, and health of the Army.”9
Mr. Woods, the acting Surgeon-General, consented to the plan and in a letter to
the Secretary of War expressed his opinion that the “Medical bureau would…
derive important and useful aid from the counsels and well-directed efforts of
an intelligent and scientific commission, to be styled, ‘A Commission of Inquiry
and Advice in respect to the Sanitary Interests of the United States Forces,’
and acting in co-operation with the Bureau in elaborating and applying such
facts as might be elicited from the experience and more extended observation of
those connected with armies, with reference to the diet and hygiene of troops
and the organization of military hospitals”. He made it clear that the
Commission was not to interfere with the existing organization of the medical
department, but was intended merely to strengthen it, and suggested that its
particular field of service would be with the volunteers.10
The
Secretary of War issued an order on June 9, 1861, appointing Henry W. Bellows,
A. D. Bache, Jeffries Wyman, W. H. Van Buren, Wolcott Gibbs, Samuel G. Howe,
Surgeon-General R. C. Wood, G. W. Cullum, and Alexander E. Shiras, as “A
Commission of Inquiry and Advice in respect to the Sanitary Interests of the
United States Forces”. These men were to serve without pay, and a room in
Washington was given to them free of charge for use as headquarters. The order
read that the Commission should “direct its inquiries to the principles and
practices connected with the inspection of recruits and enlisted men; to the
sanitary condition of the volunteers; to the proper provision of cooks, nurses,
and hospitals; and to other subjects of like nature”.11 The hopes of
the men and women who proposed the Commission had been realized, but there
“can, it is feared, be little doubt that the appointment of the Commission was
at last consented to as if it had been a ‘tub thrown to the popular whale.’”12
The
members of the Commission met in Washington on June 12, 1861, organized, and
formulated plans for conducting their work.13 At this first meeting
Dr. Elisha Harris and Dr. Cornelius R. Agnew were added to the membership.14
The Rev. Henry W. Bellows was elected president and Frederick Law Olmsted
became secretary. The secretary, with headquarters at Washington, was made the
chief executive and to him fell the work of directing the organization.15
Mr. Olmsted was at that time the superintendent of the Central Park in New York
and “his appointment was universally regarded as a sure guarantee of the
success of the Commission’s plans.”16
Notes
9 Documents of the United States Sanitary Commission, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 2.
10 Documents of the United States Sanitary Commission Vol. I, No. 2, p. 2.
11 Documents of the United States Sanitary
Commission Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 6, 7; Reed’s The
Heroic Story of the United States Sanitary Commission, 1861-1865, p. 5.
12 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 58.
13 Professor Wyman declined his appointment and consequently was not present at this
meeting.-- Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 64
14 Those added during the war were R. Rev. Bishop Clark, R. W. Burnett, Mark Skinner,
Joseph Holt, Horace Binney, Jr., Rev. J. H. Heywood, Fairman Rogers, J. Huntington Wolcott, Chas. J. Stille´, E. B. M’Cagg, and Frederick Law Olmsted.-- Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 64.
15 Documents of the United States Sanitary Commission, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 4, 5, 6.
16 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 76.
A
plan of operation was drawn up by President Bellows, adopted by the Commission,
and approved by the Secretary of War and by President Lincoln. It called for a
division of the Commission into two main committees or branches, one of
inquiry, the other of advice, with sub-committees under each. The first branch
was to conduct an inquiry as to “the condition and wants of the troops”. Its
duty was to discover “what must be the condition and want of troops
gathered together in such masses, so suddenly, and with such inexperience?…
What is their condition?”, and What ought to be their condition,
and how would Sanitary Science bring them up to the standard of the highest
attainable security and efficiency?” The object of the second branch was “to
get the opinions and conclusions of the Commission approved by the Medical
Bureau, ordered by the War Department, carried out by the officers and men, and
encouraged, aided, and supported by the benevolence of the public at large, and
by the State governments.”17
The
main purpose of the Commission from the beginning was to furnish a preventive
service, and the plan of operation adopted was largely along such lines. At the
same time it was realized that some plan must be devised by which the
contributions of the people of the whole country could be directed into proper
channels and made to do the greatest possible amount of good. Thus one of the
sub-committees of the advisory branch of the Commission was instructed “to
agree upon a plan of common action in respect of supplies, depots, and methods
of feeding the extra demands of the Medical Bureau or Commissariat”. Another
subcommittee was to secure the necessary funds “through solicitation of
donations, either from State treasuries or private beneficence.”18
In spite of the fact that relief work occupied a comparatively small part in
the original plans for the Commission, the great good accomplished in directing
the organization of aid societies and in distributing contributions from the
people at large soon caused it to become the main agency through which such
contributions were directed, and it became a “popular error that it was only a
relief association upon a grand scale”. The Commission never departed, however,
from its true scientific conception of rendering preventive service, always
considering the relief work as secondary in importance.19
Notes
17 Documents of the United States Sanitary Commission Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-4; Stille´’s
History of the United States Sanitary Commission, pp. 64, 65.
18 Documents of the United States Sanitary Commission, Vol. I, No. 3, p. 4.
19 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 68.
Created
by an order of a government official and working only for the good of the
Nation, the United States Sanitary Commission received and asked for no help
from government funds. All it asked “was permission to work”.20 It
was necessary for the Commission to secure the support of the public and this
object was soon accomplished. The first appeals were made to life insurance
companies and brought a generous response. Soon donations were secured from all
over the United States.21 A committee of influential business men
handled the finances for the first year. During the early history of the
Commission numerous appeals were issued for funds and barely enough money was received
to meet demands. In 1862 it appeared that the undertaking would have to be
abandoned for lack of funds—in fact a motion to that end was actually
considered by the members of the Commission, but by a unanimous vote they
decided to continue the struggle as long as possible.22
These
financial difficulties came at about the time when the war was beginning in
dead earnest and when the fact that there was great suffering among the
soldiers was becoming known at home. A new interest then sprang up and the cash
receipts to the Commission began to increase. In September over $200,000 was
received from the people of the western coast. This was a new source of revenue
and furnished an example which stimulated an increase in the returns from other
sections of the country. In reality this timely aid marked the turning point
and practically ended the “financial infancy of the Commission.” In December,
1863, the funds again became somewhat low and resulted in the last public
appeal which it was necessary to make. The characteristic feature of all the
appeals was the fact that no attempt was made to arouse the emotions of the
people and work upon their sympathies, but instead the emphasis was placed
entirely upon the real economic value of the constructive work accomplished.23
One
of the greatest sources from which funds poured into the treasury of the
Commission was the sanitary fairs held throughout the country. The first of
these fairs held throughout the country. The first of these fairs was held at
Chicago in November, 1863, and the sum of $79,000 was raised. Thereafter fairs
were held in many cities and large amounts of money and supplies were obtained.
Through this means Boston raised $153,000; Cincinnati, $263,000; Albany,
$80,000; Brooklyn, $425,000; New York, $1,100,000; Philadelphia, $1,200,000;
Cleveland, $60,000; Buffalo, $40,000; and Honolulu $5,500.24 The
proceeds from the fairs were in many instances used directly by the local
organizations conducting them, as was the case in Chicago, but in other cases a
part of the proceeds was turned over to the central treasury of the Commission.
The first money from fairs came to the central treasury in January, 1864, when
$50,000 was received from Boston. Thereafter other amounts were received until
the total receipts of the central treasury from this source reached $2,736,868.25
Notes
20 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 80.
21 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 84.
22 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, Chapter XVIII.
23 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, Chapter XVIII.
24 Dubuque Semi-Weekly Times, November
26, 1864; Fite’s Social and Industrial Conditions
in the North During the Civil War, p. 282.
25 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, Chapter XVIII. IT was stated by
the officers of the United States Sanitary Commission that the fairs actually resulted in loss rather than gain. Instead of guaranteeing the future o the commission they tended, in the end, to lessen the income.
Preventive Service of the Commission
A
brief summary of the work of the Commission will be sufficient to show what it
accomplished in relieving and preventing disease, in caring for the sick and
wounded, and in collecting and distributing supplies—all of which services
played an important part in increasing and maintaining the general efficiency
of the army. Preventive measures which, as has been seen, were the primary aim
of the Commission, were the first to be undertaken. Army camps and military
hospitals were inspected and recommendations were made for their improvement.
At first, members of the Commission undertook to make inspections themselves,
but in order to keep a more careful watch over conditions in all the camps and
hospitals it was soon necessary to secure additional inspectors. Plans proposed
by the Commission for better sanitary conditions were at first largely
disregarded, but were gradually accorded greater and greater recognition until
finally many of them were put into operation with gratifying success. Its plans
for new hospitals were accepted by the government officials without change, and
additional hospitals were constructed upon their recommendations. As a result of
its insistence the medical department of the army was completely reorganized
and put upon a much more practical and efficient basis.26
Physicians,
at work on the battlefields and in the hospitals, early met with many diseases
which were new to them and which, because of the lack of proper information,
they were handicapped in treating. When this situation, they were handicapped
in treating. When this situation came to the attention of the Commission, it
secured specialists in various lines to prepare medical and surgical monographs
covering particular branches, and these monographs were furnished to the
physicians and surgeons in the service of the army for their instruction. The
good accomplished by the preventive work of the Commission can not be measured,
but it is at least certain that it was an important factor in determining the
final outcome of the war.27
Notes
26 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, Chapters IV, V.
27 Stille´’s History of the United States Sanitary Commission, Chapter V.